CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In prepare
learning, we need to construct a syllabus. Syllabus is a plan about what will
be taught in class by a teacher, and what goals that must achieve by students
in a period of studies. To achieve our goals, we need to design the syllabus as
good as possible. There are many types of syllabus that can be developed by
teacher, and every type needs to mix with others. In designing syllabus, we
need some guidelines to make it. In recent day, there are current trends in
syllabus design. This paper will discuss about syllabus designing, the types of
syllabus, the guidelines, and the current trends in syllabus design.
CHAPTER II
SYLLABUS DESIGNING
A.
Definitions of Syllabus
Syllabus is
kind of things that teachers must be done before they teach a class. Syllabus
is a set of plan of what will be taught at class, what should be taught first,
second, and so on.
There are some definitions of syllabus from
experts:
1.
Hutchinson and Waters in Robberto Rabbini (2002), syllabus is a
statement of what is to be learn.
2.
McKay in Brown (1995:7) stated that syllabus provides
a focus for what should be studied, along with a rationale for how that content
should be selected and ordered.
3.
Yalden in Robberto Rabbini (2002), a syllabus can also be seen as a
“summary of the content to which learners will be exposed”.
4.
Richard, Jack C (2001), a syllabus describes the major elements in
a course, and provides the
basis for instructional focus and content.
5.
Nunan in Cheng Xiaotang, say that syllabus is more localized than curriculum, and is based on the accounts and
records of what happen in the classroom.
Syllabus is a set of plan but more specific than curriculum. It can guide teacher and learner by providing some goals to be
attained.
B.
Types of Syllabus Design
In designing a syllabus, there are so many models that have been
developed by many teachers in language teaching. There are 10 types of syllabus
design, but when teachers construct a syllabus they have to adapt it with
curriculum, the goal of the study and make it suit for their children needs.
1.
Grammatical (structural/formal) syllabus
Richard (2001:153) state that grammatical
syllabus is syllabus that organized around grammatical items. Traditionally,
grammatical syllabuses have been used as the basis for planning general
courses, particularly for beginning-level learners. According to McKay in Brown
(1995:7) structural syllabuses focus on grammatical forms. Materials based on a
structural syllabus are easy to identify because the table of contents is
organized around grammar points.
The advantages of grammatical syllabus:
a. They identify a productive range of
grammatical items that will allow for the development of basic communicative
skills
b. They arrange items into a sequence
that facilitate learning
c. They select sufficient pattern to support
the amount of teaching time available
The weaknesses of grammatical syllabus:
a. They represent only a partial dimension of language
proficiency
b. They do not reflect the acquisition
sequence seen in naturalistic second language acquisition
c. They focus on the sentence rather than on
longer units of discourse
d. They focus on form rather than meaning
e. They do not address communicative skills
2. Lexical syllabus
According to Richard (2001:154) Lexical
syllabus is a syllabus that identifies a target vocabulary to be taught
normally. It arranged vocabulary target for every level such as elementary
level is 1000 words, intermediate level is an additional 2000 words, and so on.
Because vocabulary is involved in the presentation of any type of language
content, a lexical syllabus can only be considered as one strand of a more
comprehensive syllabus. Cheng define lexical syllabus is a syllabus that
identify a target vocabulary to be taught.
3. Functional/notional syllabus
In Richards (2001:154), Richard just used
“functional syllabus” term. Functional syllabus is syllabus that organized
around communicative functions like requesting, complaining, agreeing and
alike. Functional syllabus seeks to analyze the concept of communicative
competence with assumption that mastery of individual function will result in
overall communicative ability. In Brown (1995:10), McKay differentiate
functional and notional syllabus. Notional syllabuses focus on semantic use.
Notional syllabus is organized around abstract conceptual categories called
general notions. General notions include concepts like distance, duration,
quantity, quality, location, size and so on. The phrase notional and functional
syllabus are being used separately to represent two distinct, though related,
types of syllabus: one organized around general notions and the other organized
around language functions. Reilly (1988) define notional or functional syllabus
is a collection of the functions that are performed when language is used or
the notion that language is used to express.
The advantages of functional syllabus:
a. They reflect a more comprehensive view of
language than grammar syllabus and focus on the use of the language rather than
linguistic form.
b. They can readily be linked to other types
of syllabus content (e.g. topics, grammar. vocabulary).
c. They provide a convenient framework for the
design of teaching materials, particularly in the domains of listening and
speaking.
The weaknesses of functional syllabus:
a. They are no clear criteria for selecting or
grading functions
b. They represent a simplistic view of
communicative competence and fail to address the processes of communication
c. They represent an atomistic approach to
language, that is, one that assumes that language ability can be broken down
into discrete components that can be taught separately.
d. They often lead to a phrase-book approach
to teaching that concentrate on teaching expressions and idioms used for
different functions.
e. Students learning from a functional course
may have considerable gaps in their grammatical competence.
4. Situational syllabus
Richard (2001:156) state situational
syllabus is syllabus that is organized around the language needed for different
situations such as in the airport, at a hotel, at hospital and alike.
Situational syllabus has the advantage of presenting language in context and
teaching language of immediate practical use. But they are also subject to the
following criticisms:
a. Little is known about the language used in
different situations, so selection of teaching items is typically based on
intuition.
b. Language used in specific situations may
not transfer to other situations
c. Situational syllabus often lead to a phrase-book
approach
d. Grammar is dealt with incidentally, so a
situational syllabus may result in gaps in a student’s grammatical knowledge.
According to McKay in Brown (1995:8)
situational syllabus are based on the idea that language is found in different
contexts or situations. Consequently, the organization in a situational
syllabus will be based on common situations like the following: at a party, at
a beach and so on. Roberto Rabbini (2002) said the principal organizing
characteristics is a list of situations which reflects the way language and
behavior are used everyday outside the classroom. Reilly (1988) said that
situational syllabus is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which
language occurs or is used.
5. Topical or content based syllabus
Topical syllabus is one type of syllabus
that is organized around themes, topic or other units of content. They are such
as health, hobby, and sport and so on. Contents are vehicle for practicing
language structure, functions, or skills. Its advantages are this syllabus
facilitates comprehension, content makes linguistic form more meaningful, they
allow for integration of the four skills. Based on Brown (1995:9) state topical
syllabus are similar to situational syllabus.
The advantages of topical syllabus:
a. They facilitate comprehension
b. Content makes linguistic form more
meaningful
c. Content serves as the best basis for
teaching the skill areas
d. They address students’ needs
e. They motivate learners
f. They allow for integration of the four
skills
g. They allow for use of authentic materials
6. Competency-based syllabus
Richard (2001:159) said competency-based
syllabus is a syllabus that based on a specification of the competencies
learners are expected to master. Competencies are a description of the
essential skills, knowledge, and attitudes required for effective performance
of particular tasks or activities. Competency-based syllabuses are widely used
in social survival and work-oriented language programs.
7. Skill-based syllabus
Based on Richard (2001:159), this syllabus
is organized around four skills in English, Writing, reading, listening and
speaking ability. The content of language teaching is a collection of specific
abilities that may play a part in using language. An author who uses a
skills-based syllabus organizes materials around the language or academic
skills that he or she thinks the students will most need in order to use and
continue to learn the language. Reilley (1988) state skill-based syllabus is
syllabuses that consist of the collection of specific abilities that may play a
part in using language.
The advantages of skill-based syllabus:
a. They focus on behavior or performance
b. They teach skills that can transfer to many
other situations
c. They identify teachable and learnable units
The weaknesses of skill-based syllabus:
a. There is no serious basis for determining
skills
b. They focus on discrete aspects of
performance rather than on developing more global and integrated communicative
abilities
8. Task-based syllabus/procedural syllabus
A syllabus is organized around task that
students will complete in a target language. Tasks are activities which have
meaning as their primary focus. Two kinds of tasks have been proposed as a
basis for syllabus design: pedagogical tasks and real-world tasks. A task-based
syllabus assumes that speaking a language is a skill best perfect through
practice and interaction, and uses tasks and activities to encourage learners
to use the language communicatively in order to achieve a purpose. Some tasks
might include making appointment, writing a resume, filling out a job
application, and others. Based on Cheng, task-based syllabuses are more
concerned with the classroom processes which stimulate learning than with the
language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. These syllabuses
consist of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the
learners will engage in class in the target language.
The advantages of task-based syllabus:
a. Tasks are activities that drive the second
language acquisition process
b. Grammar teaching is not central with this
approach because learners will acquire grammar as a by-product of carrying our
tasks
c. Tasks are motivating for learners and
engage them in meaningful communication.
9. Text-based syllabus
Text-based syllabus is one that is built
around texts (narrative, descriptive and etc). Text-based syllabus is a type of
integrated syllabus because it combines elements of different types of
syllabuses.
The advantages of text-based syllabus:
a. It teaches explicitly about the structures
and grammatical features of spoken and written texts
b. It links spoken and written texts to the
social and cultural context of their use
c. It allows for the design of units of work
that focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts
d. It provides students with guided practices
as they develop language skills for meaningful communication through texts.
The weaknesses of text-based syllabus:
a. It focuses on specific skills rather than a
more general language proficiency
b. It may be impractical in many situations.
10. Integrated/mixed/layered syllabus
According to Brown (1995:12), mix or
layered syllabus is a syllabus that mixes one type with other. It is integrated
of two or more design like grammar link to skill and text, tasks linked to
topics and functions, or skill linked to topics and text. The organization
of some materials may involve interspersing element from two or more types of
syllabus. In Richard (2001:164) an integrated syllabus is decisions about a
suitable syllabus framework for a course reflect different priorities in
teaching rather than absolute choices. For almost all instructional programs,
it is clear that some combination of types of instructional content will be
needed to address the complex goals of the program.
C.
Guidelines to Choose Syllabus Design
In designing a syllabus, there are so many types of them. We know that no
single type of syllabus is appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs
and conditions of class that will be taught. Because of that we need guidelines
to choose syllabus design.
In Tarey (1988), a
set of guidelines for the process is provided below. Ten steps in preparing a
practical language teaching syllabus:
1.
Determine, to the extent posibble, what outcomes are desired for
the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactlyand realistically
as posibble, define what the students should be able to do as a resultof the
instructional. It is means
that we have to set up our objectives that will get by our students at the end
of learn about the materials.
2.
Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of
leading to the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be necessary if outcomes
are complex. We have to
choose main posibbility of our objectives.
3.
Evaluate available resources in expertise in materials, and in
training for teachers.
4.
Rank the syllabi relative to available resources.
5.
Compare the lists no.2 and 4. Making as few adjusments to the
earlier list as posibble, produce a new ranking based on the resources’
constraints.
6.
Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed
by teacher and student factors described earlier. We
should repeat the proses start from the first step until the fifth step.
7.
Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information
produced by the earlier steps. We
should decided the final ranking of our syllabus designing.
8.
Designated one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as
secondary.
9.
Review the question of combination of syllabus types and determine
how combinations will be achieved and in what proportion.
10.
Translate decisions into actual teaching units. In
this step, it is time for us to apply the final syllabus that we have determine
before in teaching and learning proses.
In making
practical decisions about syllabus design, one must take into consideration all
the posibble factors that might affect the teachability of a particular
syllabus. By strating with an examination of each syllabus type, tailoring the
choice and integration of the different types according to local needs, one may
find a principled and practical solution to the problem of appropriateness and
effectiveness in syllabus design.
D.
Current Trends in Syllabus Design
There are many issues in syllabus design in this day. Many types of
syllabus that had been developed before, it appeared current trends in syllabus
design.
1.
The co-existence of the old and the new
Syllabus have many different types in every decades. The
traditional syllabuses have not been completely abandoned and the later models
have not been universally accepted.
For example, though one of the earliest type of syllabus, the
grammatical syllabus continues to be used in many parts of the world and
although the task-based is often said to be the latest (newest) type of
syllabus, it has been found to bee incompatible with many educational context
and therefore has not been widely adopted (Richards, 2001 ; Ellis, 2003).
2.
The emphasis on learning process
Compared with the traditional syllabus, the later models (e.g., the
content syllabus, the procedural syllabus and the task-based syllabus) have
attached more importance to the process of language learning than to the
product of language learning.
3.
The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus
This models include a list of non-linguistic objectives, such as
learning strategy and effective cultivation.
4.
The emergence of the multi-syllabus
In most courses there will generally be a number of different
syllabus strands, such as grammar
linked to skills and text, tasks linked to topics and function, or skills linked to topics and texts”(Richards,
2001 :164, Italics original). Therefore, the integrated syllabus came into
being, which is also called the multi-syllabus. Designing a multi-syllabus does
not mean the simple combination of elements from different types of syllabuses.
Rather, it is matter of choice of priority.
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
Syllabus is a set of plan of what will be
taught at class, what should be taught first, second, and so on. There are many
types of syllabus. They are grammatical (structural/formal) syllabus, lexical
syllabus, functional/notional syllabus, topical or content syllabus,
competency-based syllabus, skill-based syllabus, task-based syllabus,
text-based syllabus, and integrated/mixed syllabus.
Every type cannot be appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and
conditions of class that will be taught. Because of that, we need to
integrate one type with others. And actually no one (type) the best from the
others, they are best for their each purpose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, James Dean.1995.The Elements of
Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development. USA:
Heile and Heilne Publishers
Richard, Jack C.2001.Curriculum
Development in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Rabbinic, Roberto.2002.An Introduction
to Syllabus Design an Evaluation. The Internet TESL Journal
Tarey, Relly.1988.Approaches to Foreign
Language Syllabus Design. ERIC Digest
Xiaotang, Cheng.Tt.Current Trends in
Syllabus Design and Material Development
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