CHAPTER I
Introduction
To
begin with, it seems of great importance to define the term syllabus in order
to have a better understanding of what it actually means and to which aspects
and dimensions of ELT it is related. Of course, it should be noted that there
are many challenges to proper defining and elaborating on the concept
syllabus. For example, in recent years,
the focus of syllabuses has shifted away from structure to situations,
functions and notions to topics and tasks. That is why, as Nunan (1988:52)
highlights, with the development of the latter obviously "the traditional
distinction between syllabus design and methodology has become blurred".
Accordingly, though it is a little difficult on initial appearance to describe
syllabus, it seems possible to make an attempt to define syllabus at least in
an understandable way. In Wilkins' (1981) words, syllabuses are
"specifications of the content of language teaching which have been
submitted to some degree of structuring or ordering with the aim of making
teaching and learning a more effective process." A syllabus can also be
seen as "a plan of what is to be achieved through our teaching and our
students' learning" (Breen, 1984a) while its function is "to specify
what is to be taught and in what order" (Prabhu, 1984). Hutchinson and
Waters (1987:80) define syllabus as at its simplest level “as a statement of
what is to be learnt”.
Purpose
The
purpose of this paper is to briefly introduce and study the types of syllabuses. Accordingly, the essentials and issues
central to each syllabus are dealt with and examined.
SYLLABUS DESIGNING
JACK
C RICHARD
- Syllabus : Definition
Syllabus is a
description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in which
they are to be taught.
- Types of Syllabus Design:
1. Grammatical
(or structural) syllabus
One that is organized around grammatical items.
Traditionally, grammatical syllabuses have been used as the basis for planning
general courses, particularly for beginning-level learners. In developing a
grammatical syllabus, the syllabus planner seeks to solve the following
problems:
• to select
sufficient patterns to support the amount of teaching time available
• to arrange items into a sequence that facilitates learning
• to
identify a productive range of grammatical items that will allow for the
development of basic communicative skills
2.
Functional Syllabus
A functional syllabus
seeks to analyze the concept of communicative competence into its different
components on the assumption that mastery of individual functions will result in overall communicative
ability.
3.
Situasional Sylabus
A situation is a setting in which particular
communicative acts typically occur. A situational syllabus identifies the situations in which the learner will use the
language and the typical
communicativeacts and language used in that setting.
4.
Topical or content-based syllabus
One that is organized around themes, topics, or other units
of content. With a topical syllabus, content rather than grammar, functions, or situations is the starting
point in syllabus design. Content
may provide the sole criterion for organizing the syllabus or a framework for linking a variety of different
syllabus strands together.
5.
Competency-based
syllabus
One based on a specification of the
competencies learners are expected to master in relation to specific
situations and activities.
Competencies are a description of the essential skills, knowledge, and
attitudes required for effective performance of particular tasks and
activities.
6.
Skills
Syllabus
One that is organized around the
different underlying abilities that are involved in using a language for purposes such as reading,
writing, listening, or speaking.
Approaching a language through skills
is based on the belief that learning
a complex activity such as "listening to a lecture" involves mastery of a number of individual skills
or microskills that together make up the activity.
7.
Task-based Syllabus
One that is organized around tasks
that students will complete in the target
language. A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using
language such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map and giving directions, or reading a set of instructions and
assembling a toy. "Tasks
are activities which have meaning as their primary focus.
8. Text-based Syllabus
One that is built around texts and
samples of extended
discourse. As already noted, this can be regarded as a type of situational approach because the starting point in
planning a syllabus is analysis of the contexts in which the learners will
use the language.
ROBERTO RABBINI
- Syllabus : Definition
A syllabus is an expression of opinion on the nature of
language and learning; it acts as a guide for both teacher and learner by
providing some goals to be attained.
- Types of Syllabus Design:
·
Product-Oriented Syllabuses
Also known as the synthetic approach,
these kinds of syllabuses emphasize the product of language learning and are
prone to intervention from an authority.
·
The Structural Approach
Grammatical syllabus is a syllabus design in which the
selection and grading of the content is based on the complexity and simplicity
of grammatical items. The learner is expected to master each structural step
and add it to her grammar collection. As such the focus is on the outcomes or
the product.
·
The Situational
Approach
The principal organizing characteristic in this dessign is a
list of situations which reflects the way language and behavior are used
everyday outside the classroom.
One advantage of the situational approach is that motivation
will be heightened since it is "learner- rather than
subject-centered" (Wilkins.1976: 16).
·
The Notional/Functional Approach
Wilkins' criticism of structural and situational approaches
lies in the fact that they answer only the 'how' or 'when' and 'where' of
language (Brumfit and Johnson. 1979:84).
The starting point for a syllabus is the communicative purpose and
conceptual meaning of language i.e. notions and functions, as opposed to
grammatical items and situational elements which remain but are relegated to a
subsidiary role.
- Process-Oriented Syllabuses
Process rather than a product. That is, focus is not on what
the student will have accomplished on completion of the program, but on the
specification of learning tasks and activities that s/he will undertake during
the course.
·
Procedural/Task-Based Approaches
The focus shifts from the linguistic element to the
pedagogical, with an emphasis on learning or learner. Within such a framework
the selection, ordering and grading of content is no longer wholly significant
for the syllabus designer.
·
Learner-Led Syllabuses
The notion of basing an approach on how learners learn was
proposed by Breen and Candlin (1984). Here the emphasis lays with the learner,
who it is hoped will be involved in the implementation of the syllabus design
as far as that is practically possible.
·
The Proportional Approach
The proportional syllabus basically attempts to develop an
"overall competence" (Op.Cit.:97). It consists of a number of
elements with theme playing a linking role through the units. This theme is
designated by the learners. It is expected initially that form will be of
central value, but later, the focus will veer towards interactional components
; the syllabus is designed to be dynamic, not static, with ample opportunity
for feedback and flexibility (ibid:100).
CHENG XIAOTANG
- Syllabus : Definition
Syllabus refers to the course of study or content in a
particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum or the history
curriculum.
A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the
classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and
sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.
- Types of Syllabus Design:
1. Grammatical syllabuses
The underlying assumption behind
grammatical syllabuses is that language is a system which consists of a set of
grammatical rules; learning language means learning these rules and then
applying them to practical language use.
2.
Lexical syllabuses
Lexical
syllabuses identify a target vocabulary to be taught normally arranged according
to levels such as the first 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 words.
3. Skills
syllabuses
Skills syllabuses are organized
around the different underlying abilities that are involved in using a language
for purposes such as reading, writing, listening, or speaking.
4. Functional-notional syllabuses
In
functional-notional syllabuses, the input is selected and graded according to the communicative
functions (such as requesting, complaining, suggesting, agreeing) that language
learners need to perform at the end of the language programme. The
functional-notional syllabuses reflect a broader view of language provided by
philosophers of language and sociolinguistics.
5. Content syllabuses
In content syllabuses, the content of language learning might
be defined in terms of situations, topics, themes, or other academic or school
subjects. The stimulus for
content-syllabuses is the notion that, unlike science, history, or mathematics,
language is not a subject in its own right, but merely a vehicle for
communicating about something else. These syllabuses are also called topical
syllabuses.
6. Task-based syllabuses
Task-based syllabuses are more concerned with the classroom processes which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. These syllabuses consist of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in in class in the target language.
- Current Trends in Syllabus Design
1.
The co-existence of the old and the
new
Although many different types of syllabuses have been brought
forth in the past three decades, currently, the traditional syllabuses (e.g.,
the grammatical syllabus and lexical syllabus) have not been completely
abandoned, and the later models (e.g., the content syllabus and the task-based
syllabus) have not been universally accepted.
2.
The emphasis on learning proces
These syllabuses are sometimes referred to as
process-oriented syllabuses, which focus on the learning experience themselves.
This types of syllabuses are often contrasted with the product-oriented
syllabuses, which focus on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain
as a result of instruction (Nunan, 1988).
3.
The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in
syllabus
The underlying assumption behind this trend in syllabus design
is that, as a school subject, language education should not merely aim at
helping students to maters language knowledge and skills. Rather, it has
responsibility in foster students’ whole-person development, which includes not
only intellectual development but also affect, cultural understanding and
learning strategies.
4.
The emergence of the multi-syllabus
Given the fact the none of the existing types of syllabuses
is any better than the others, “decisions about a suitable syllabus framework
for a [language] course reflect different priorities in teaching rather than
absolute choices…. In most courses there will generally be a number of
different syllabus strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts,
tasks linked to topics and functions, or skills linked
to topics and texts” (Richards, 2001:164, italics original).
Therefore, the integrated syllabus came into being, which is also called the
muli-syllabus. Designing a multi-syllabus does not mean the simple combination
of elements from different types of syllabuses. Rather, it is a matter of
choice of priority.
RELLY
TARREY
- Syllabus : Definition
A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of
subject matter (what to talk about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about
it); that is, the actual matter that makes up teaching. Choices of syllabi can
range from the more or less purely linguistic, where the content of instruction
is the grammatical and lexical forms of the language, to the purely semantic or
informational, where the content of instruction is some skill or information
and only incidentally the form of the language. To design a syllabus is to
decide what gets taught and in what order.
B.
Types of Syllabus Design
1. A structural
(formal) syllabus.
The content of language teaching is a
collection of the forms and structures, usually
grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples include nouns, verbs,
adjectives, statements, questions, subordinate clauses, and so on.
2. A
notional/functional syllabus.
The content of the language teaching is a
collection of the functions that are performed when language is used, or of the
notions that language is used to express. Examples of functions include:
informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting; examples of notions include size,
age, color, comparison, time, and so on.
3. A situational
syllabus
The content of language teaching is a
collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used.
A situation usually involves several participants who are engaged in some
activity in a specific setting.
4. A skill-based
syllabus
The content of the language teaching
is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language.
Skills are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language,
relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language use
can occur.
5. A task-based
syllabus
The content of the teaching is a series of
complex and purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the
language they are learning. The tasks are defined as activities with a purpose
other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus, the
performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to develop
second language ability.
6. A
content-based-syllabus.
The primary purpose of instruction is
to teach some content or information using the language that the students are
also learning.
c.
Guidelines to Choose Syllabus Design
Ten steps
in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus:
1)
Determine, to the extent possible, what outcomes are desired
for the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and
realistically as possible, define what the students should be able to do as a
result of the instruction.
2)
Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their
likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be
necessary if outcomes are complex.
3)
Evaluate available resources in expertise (for teaching,
needs analysis, materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and in
training for teachers.
4)
Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is,
determine what syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given available
resources.
5)
Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few
adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new ranking based on the
resources' constraints.
6)
Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints
contributed by teacher and student factors described earlier.
7)
Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the
information produced by the earlier steps.
8)
Designate one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or
two as secondary.
9)
Review the question of combination or integration of
syllabus types and determine how combinations will be achieved and in what
proportion.
10) Translate decisions
into actual teaching units.
In making practical
decisions about syllabus design, one must take into consideration all the
possible factors that might affect the teachability of a particular syllabus.
By starting with an examination of each syllabus type, tailoring the choice and
integration of the different types according to local needs, one may find a
principled and practical solution to the problem of appropriateness and
effectiveness in syllabus design.
Current
trends in syllabus design
- The co-existence of the old and the new
Although many different
types of syllabuses have been brought forth in the past three decades,
currently, the traditional syllabuses (e.g., the grammatical syllabus and
lexical syllabus) have not been completely abandoned, and the later models (e.g.,
the content syllabus and the task-based syllabus) have not been universally
accepted. For example, though one of the earliest type of syllabus, the
grammatical syllabus continues to be used in many parts of the world; and
although the task-based is often said to be the latest (newest) type of
syllabus, it has been found to be incompatible with many educational context
and therefore has not been widely adopted (Richards, 2001; Ellis, 2003).
- The emphasis on learning process
Compared with the traditional
syllabuses, the later models (e.g., the content syllabus, the procedural
syllabus and the task-based syllabus) have attached more importance to the
process of language learning than to the product of language learning. These
syllabuses are sometimes referred to as process-oriented syllabuses, which
focus on the learning experience themselves. This types of syllabuses are often
contrasted with the product-oriented syllabuses, which focus on the knowledge
and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction (Nunan, 1988).
3. The
inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus
Compared with
traditional syllabuses, the later models usually include a list of
non-linguistic objectives, such as learning strategies and affective
cultivation. Richards (2001) refers to these objectives as non-language
outcomes, which include affect cultivation (such as confidence, motivation and
interest), learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, and
cultural understanding. The underlying assumption behind this trend in syllabus
design is that, as a school subject, language education should not merely aim
at helping students to maters language knowledge and skills. Rather, it has
responsibility in foster students’ whole-person development, which includes not
only intellectual development but also affect, cultural understanding and
learning strategies.
- The emergence of the multi-syllabus
Given the fact the none
of the existing types of syllabuses is any
better than the others, “decisions about a suitable syllabus framework
for a [language] course reflect different priorities in teaching rather than
absolute choices…. In most courses there will generally be a number of
different syllabus strands, such as grammar linked to skills and texts,
tasks linked to topics and functions, or skills
linked to topics and texts” (Richards, 2001:164, italics
original). Therefore, the integrated syllabus came into being, which is also
called the muli-syllabus. Designing a multi-syllabus does not mean the simple
combination of elements from different types of syllabuses. Rather, it is a
matter of choice of priority.
Currently, the practice of adhering
to one type of syllabus throughout the language program is rare. Rather
syllabus designers tend to resort to multi-syllabus. There are two ways for
syllabus designers to do so. First, they can design a multi-syllabus,
incorporating features of currently popular syllabuses. Second, they can choose
to adopt a different type for the different stages of the program. For example,
[a] syllabus might be organized grammatically at the first level and then the
grammar presented functionally. Or the first level of organization might be
functional with grammar items selected according to the grammatical demands of different functions (Richards, 2001:164).
Conglusion
The single most important instrument
of structure in a course is the SYLLABUS, which outlines the goals and
objectives of a course, prerequisites, the grading/evaluation scheme, materials
to be used (textbooks, software), topics to be covered, a schedule, and a
bibliography. So, A syllabus is a document that outlines everything that will
be covered in a class.
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A syllabus
usually includes the following components:
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COMPONENT
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DESCRIPTION
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Title page
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Course number and title, semester and year, number of
units, meeting times and location, instructor and TA information (e.g., name,
office, office hours, contact information)
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A brief introduction to the course: scope, purpose and
relevance of the material.
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Skills and knowledge you want students to gain.
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Course organization
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Explanation of the topical organization of the course
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Materials
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Required (and/or optional) books (with authors and
editions), reserve readings, course readers, software, and supplies with
information about where they can be obtained
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Prerequisites and co-requisites
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Courses students need to have taken before yours (or at
the same time); prerequisite skill sets (e.g., programming languages,
familiarity with software). Provide advice on what students should do if they
lack these skills (e.g., drop the course; get outside help; study
supplementary material you will provide)
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Course requirements
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What students will have to do in the course: assignments,
exams, projects, performances, attendance, participation, etc. Describe the
nature and format of assignments and the expected length of written
work. Provide due dates for assignments and dates for exams.
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What will the final grade be based on? Provide a breakdown
of components and an explanation of your grading policies (e.g., weighting of
grades, curves, extra-credit options, the possibility of dropping the lowest
grade)
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Policies concerning attendance, participation, tardiness,
academic integrity, missing homework, missed exams, recording classroom activities,
food in class, laptop use, etc. Describe your expectations for student
behavior (e.g., respectful consideration of one another’s perspectives,
open-mindedness, creative risk-taking). Let students know what they can
expect from you (e.g., your availability for meetings or e-mail
communication).
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Course calendar
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A day-to-day breakdown of topics and assignments
(readings, homework, project due-dates)
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How to use the syllabus; how to study for the course (how
to read efficiently and effectively, whether readings are to be done before
or after the class they pertain to, when to start assignments, approved forms
of collaboration, etc.); how to seek help.
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REFERENCE
Richard, Jack C. 2001. Curriculum Development In Language
Teaching. Cambidge University Press.
Rabbini, Roberto. 2002. An Introduction to Syllabus Design
and Evaluation. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 5
Tarey, Relly. 1981. Approaches to Foreign Language Sylabus
Design. ERIC Digest
Xiaotang, Cheng. Tt. Curent Trends in Syllabus Design and
Material Development
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