PLANNING MATERIALS

PLANNING MATERIALS

1.    INTRODUCTION

This paper will discuss the nature of materials development, the role of materials in language classroom, characteristics of good language teaching materials, principles of effective ELT materials, the source of the materials (authentic, created, adopted, and adapted). In addition, this paper will explain authentic vs. created, principles, characteristics, and techniques of adopting and adapting materials, advantages and disadvantages, factors to consider, and guidelines for designing effective English teaching materials.

2.    DISCUSSION

A.    The Nature of Materials Development

The goal of preparing effective teaching materials is to create materials that can serve as resources for effective learning. The writer starts with a learning goal in mind and then seeks to create a seeks to create a set of activities that enable that goal to be reached. The goal of materials development and classroom teaching is to develop a sequence of activities that leads teachers and learners through a learning route that is at an appropriate level of difficulty, is engaging, that provides both motivating and useful practice.

B.     The Role of Materials in Language Teaching Material.

C.    Characteristics of Good Language Teaching Materials

According Tomlinson (1998) the good language teaching material include of :

a.       Materials should achieve impact

b.      Materials should help learners feel at ease

c.       Materials should help learners to development confidence

d.      What is being taught should be perceived by learner as relevant and useful

e.       Materials should require and facilitate learner self- investment

f.       Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught

g.      Materials should expose the learners to language inauthentic use

h.      The learner’s attention should be  drawn to linguistic features of the input

i.        Materials should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes

j.        Materials should take into account that positive effects of instruction are usually delayed

k.      Materials should take into account that learners have different learning style

l.        Materials should take into account that learner  differ in affective attitudes

m.    Materials should permit  a silent period at the beginning of instruction

n.      Material should maximize learning potential by encouraging  intellectual, aesthetics, and emotional involvement that stimulates both right and left brain activities

o.      Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice

p.      Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback.

Good materials do many of things that a teacher would  normally do as part of his or her teaching. They should:

a.    Arouse the learners’ interest

b.    Remind them the earlier learning

c.    Tell them what they will be learning next

d.   Explain new learning content to them

e.    Relate these ideas to learners’ previous learning

f.      Ger learners to think about new content

g.    Help them get feedback on their learning

h.    Encourage them to practice

i.      Make sure they know what they are supposed to be doing

j.      Enable them to check their progress

k.    Help them to do better

The list identififies each unit in the materials should reflect:

a.    Gives learners something they can take away from the lesson

b.    Teaches something learners feel they can use

c.     Gives learners a sense of  achievement

d.   Practices learning items in an interesting and novel way

e.    Provides a pleasurable learning experience

f.     Provides opportunities for success, individual practice, personalization and self assessment of learning

D.    Principles of effective ELT material

a. Language is functional and must be contextualized

Material must contextualize the language present. Without a knowledge of what is going on, who the participants are and their  social and psychological distance in time and space from the events referred to, it is impossible to understand  the real meaning of an interaction. The teacher who must ensure that a balance is achieved between input and the reapplication of this to the unique context of given class.

b. Language development requires learner engagement in purposeful use of language

The focus of input and output materials should thus be on whole texts, language in use rather than on so-called building blocks to be use at some later date. This does not mean that there should be no focus on form but rather that from normally come out of whole text which have already been processed for meaning .materials need to include such information for students so that they can be used as references beyond the classroom and independently of the teacher.

c. The language used should be realistic and authentic

The problem with using authentic materials is that it is very difficult to find such materials which scaffold the learning process by remaining within manageable. It is also difficult to teacher legally to obtain a sufficient range of audiovisual materials of an appropriate quality and length. The more realistic the language, the more easily it can cater to the range of proficiency levels found in many classes. Then, the proposed activities must be varied and adaptable to classroom constrains of time and concentration span.

     d. Classroom materials will usually seek to include an audio visual component

            Materials such as video and multimedia allow teachers and learner to explore the nonverbal and cultural aspects of language as well as the verbal. Intonation, gesture, mime, facial expressing, body posture and so on , are all essential channels of communication which not only help learner understand the verbal language to which they are exposed, but also are an integral part of the system of meaning which they are seeking to learn. Visual also provide information about the physical context of interaction. This crucial comprehension support occurs particularly with formats such as soap opera, where there is greater convergence between the audio and visual strands than in other video materials, likes documentaries with voice-overs.

e. In our modern, technologically complex world, second language learners need to develop the ability to deal with written as well as spoken genres

Reading materials will normally need to cover a range of genres, possibly including computer literacy. These will emerge from the context and be accompanied by activities and exercises which explore both their meaning in the context and, if appropriate, their schematic structure and language features.

f. Effective teaching materials foster learner autonomy

Given the context- dependent nature of language, no language course  can predict all the language needs of learners and must seek, therefore to prepare them to deal independently with the language they encounter as they move into new situations. The activities and materials proposed must be flexible, designed to develop skills and strategies which can  be transferred to other texts in other context. Making generic and cultural aspect of the languge explicit and available to learner in their textbook gives them more control over their learning environment

g. Materials need to be flexible enough to cater to individual and contextual differences

Language is a social practice and largely an individual process as learner  seeks to integrate newly perceived information into their existing language system. It is essential for teachers to recognize  the different background, experiences and learning style  that student bring to the language classroom.

The presuppose that the teacher is prepared to adapt and interpretative  rather than a transmissive methodology and to adapt the materials to the context in which learning in taking place. It is kind of open interaction which helps make explicit the underlying  culture and linguistic assumption and values of both teachers and learners.

h.      learning needs to engage learners both affectively and cognitively

The language classroom involves an encounter of identities and cultures and it needs to be recognized that language learning requires the active participation of the whole learner. The integration of new knowledge into the learner’s own existing language system occurs with certainly only when  the language is use spontaneously in a communicative situation to express the learner’s own meaning, likes real communication however, implies the engagement of genuine interest and will depend, in part at least on the presence of a positive group in dynamic in the classroom.

E.     Where Do Material Come From

a)      Authentic vs. Created materials

 Authentic materials refer to use in teaching of texts, photographs, video selections, and other teaching resources that were not specially prepared for pedagogical purposes. Whether created materials refer to textbooks and other specially developed instructional resources. Authentic materials are preferred over created materials, because they contain authentic language and reflect real-world uses of language compared with the contrived content of much created material.

Advantages of authentic materials	Disadvantages of authentic materials
a.       Have positive effect on learner motivation.	a.       Created materials can also be motivating for learners
b.      Provide authentic cultural information about the target culture.	b.      Authentic materials often contain difficult language
c.       Provide exposure to real language.	c.       Created materials may be superior to authentic materials because they are generally built around syllabus.
d.      Relate more closely to learners’ needs.	d.      Using authentic materials is a burden for teachers.
e.       Support a more active approach to teaching.

Usually, teacher like to mixed both of created materials and authentic materials in many language programs because their advantages as well as limitations. The distinction between authentic and created materials is becoming increasingly blurred, because many published materials incorporate authentic texts and other real-world sources.

Textbooks

Textbooks are used in different ways in language programs. For example, a reading textbook might provide both a set of reading texts and exercises for skills practice. A writing textbook might provide model compositions and a list of topics for students to write about. A grammar textbook might serve as a reference book and provide examples to develop grammatical knowledge. A speaking text might provide passages for students to read and discuss. A listening text together with audiocassettes or CDs might serve as the primary listening input in a listening course.

The advantages of textbooks:	The disadvantages of textbooks:
a.    Provide structure and a syllabus for a program b.    Help standardize instruction c.    Maintain quality d.   Provide a variety of learning resources e.    Textbook are efficient f.     Can provide effective language models and input g.    Textbooks can train teachers h.    Textbooks are visually appealing	a.    May contain inauthentic language b.    May distort content c.    May not reflect students’ needs d.   Textbooks can deskill teachers e.    Textbooks are expensive

Evaluating Textbooks

Evaluations can only be done by considering something in relation to its purpose. A book may be ideal in one situation because it matches the needs of that situation perfectly. It has just the right amount of material for the program, easy to teach, can be used with little preparation by inexperienced teachers, and it has an equal coverage of grammar and the four skills.

The role of the textbook in the program:

1.      Is there a well-developed curriculum that describes the objectives syllabus and content of the program or will this be determined by the textbook?

2.      Will the book or the textbook series provide the core of the program, or it is one of several different books that will be used?

3.      Will it be used with small classes or large ones?

4.      Will learners be expected to buy a workbook as well or should the textbook provide all the practice students need?

The teachers in the program:

1.      How experienced are the teachers in the program and what is their level of training?

2.      Are they native speakers of English? If not, how well do they speak English?

3.      Do the teachers tend to follow the textbook closely or do they use the book simply as a resource?

4.      Do the teachers play a part in selecting they teach from?

5.      Are teachers free to adapt and supplement the book?

The learners in the program:

1.      Is each student required to buy a book?

2.      What do learners typically expect in a textbook?

3.      Will they use the book in class and at home?

4.      How will they use book in class? Is it the primary source of classroom activities?

5.      How much are they prepared to pay for a book?

Textbook evaluation and selection organized under the following categories:

1.      Aims and approaches

2.      Design and organization

3.      Language content

4.      Skills

5.      Topic

6.      Methodology

7.      Teachers’ books

8.      Practical considerations

            The type of evaluation a textbook receives will also reflect the concerns of the evaluator. One teacher may look at a book in terms of its usability. Another teacher may look at a book much more critically in terms of its theoretical orientation and approach. Two teachers evaluating a writing text may likewise look at it from very different perspective. One may subscribe to a process-oriented view of writing and look for activities that practice such processes as generating ideas, drafting, reviewing, revising, and editing. Another may be more concerned to see that adequate treatment is given to different conventions for organizing different kinds of text, such as narrative writing, expository writing, and descriptive writing.

b) Adopting and Adapting Materials

1. Adopting  Materials

a)   Principles :

                                  i.          Deciding on types of materials

Materials can also be based on many different approaches and can be organized around a number of different syllabus,and materials can also be presented on a number of media and take many phsycal forms on any one of those media. Thus, many  options must be considered long before any decisions can be made as to what specific materials to adopt.

                                ii.          Locating materials

There are three sources of information immediately spring to mind that can help in finding existing materials that make suitable :

a.       Publishers’ catalogs are  usually free for the asking.

Addresses for some of the most prominent publihers of  ESL materials are listed in the appendix and also produce materials for other language., so this list should provide at least a starting point of any language teacher looking for published materials.

b.      Examinationcopies, also call review copies  is sent they can be considered for adaption in course. However, it just free of charge if the teacher subsequently order materials for his or her student within a certain number of days.

c.       Book Received are usually listed the near the back of journal,such listings are usually fairly current. However, since such lists include only the author, title, and publishers, sending for desk or review copies will still be necessary.

d.      The teachers’ selves within the program may be full of materials that could prove interisting and useful.

                              iii.          Evaluating materials

If the teacher individually select the materials that are to be adopted and ordered for their courses, they should be given as much information as possible to draw on in making those decisions it is call materialevalution.

The reviews in proffesional journal and news letter typically reflect only the view of one individual. One review can be heplful, but a number of review will be offer a more comprehensive picture of the book or materials consideration. 

                              iv.          Ongoing review of materials

That materials must be reviewd periodecally so that they do not become stale with regardto the particular curriculum involved.

b)   Adapting materials

There are some steps of materials:

1.      Analyzing , this process are virtually the same as the one described in the previous section for adapting materials. However, as the materials are being evaluated, teachers should also analyze the degree to which each set of existing materials matches the course objectives, as well as degree of mismatch.

2.      Identifying , it is useful elements of the materials in a way that is different from how they were grouped in the original so that the resulting adaptation will more closely match the groupings and orderings in the course objectives.

3.      Fill in the gaps, theachers in the program may know from their own experience existing materials that may help to fill the gaps.

4.      Reorganized, the materials can be reorganized to better match the existing objectives and syllabus. Such a reorganization may entil changing the list so that it progresses objectives by objective through the syllabus, or it might mean that each objective will be covered in turn and the recycled systematically at a higher level of compexity or difficulty.

Adapting a course book.

            There are several reasons for doing this and these could be classified as responding to the environment, taking account of needs, or putting principles into practice.

a.       Does not include all the activities that the teachers has used successfully before.

b.      Does not fit comfortably into the time available for the course

c.       Contaions content that is unsuitable for the learners’ level of proficiency or age

d.      The learners knowledge and skill do not match that involved in the course book (prabhu,1989)

e.       Does not include language items, skills, ideas, discourse, or startegies that the learners need

f.       Does not apply principles that the teachers feel should be applied

g.      Does not involve the learners in the curriculum design process( allwright,1981)

The teachers can do the following things to adapt a course book.

a.       Add or omit content. The teachers add exercises to give extra practice to items and also skip over confusing or unimportant parts of a lesson.

b.      Change the sequencing of the content. The teacehrs introduce some items earlier in the course

c.       Change the format. Instead the beginning the lesson with a dialogue ,the teachers puts it towards theend of the lesson and usses the other exercises

d.      Change the presentatation. The teachers usue differet technic than those used in the book.

e.       Add or omit monitoring. The teachers encourages the learners to make a test to check each others leraning of what is in the lesson (clarke,1989)

f.       Add or omit assessment. The teachers introduces weekly tests to encourage learners to do homework or to let them see their progress.

Adapting text books

                                    This adaptation may take a variety of forms.

a.       Modifying content

Content may need to be changed because it does not suilt the target learners, perhaps because of factors related to the learners’ age, gender, social class, occupation, religion or cultural background.

b.      Adding or deleting content

The book may contain too much or too little for the program. Whole untis may have to be dropped, or perhaps sections of unti throughout the book omitted.

c.       Reorganizing content

A teacher may decide to reorganize the syllabus of the book, and arrange the untis in what she considers a more suitable order.

d.      Addressing omissions

The text may omit items that the teacher feels are important. E.g : a teacher may add vocabulary activities or grammar activities to a unit.

e.       Modifying tasks

Exercises and activities may need to be changed to give them an additional focus. For example, a listening activity may focus only on listening information.

f.       Extending tasks

Exercises may contain insufficient practice and additional practice tasks may need to be added.

            c) Developing/ Designing Own Materials

a. Advantages and Disadvantages of Designing of Own Material

Advantages :

1.      Contextualization

            Most of teacher designing their own teaching material, enable them to take into account their particular learning environment and to overcome the lack of “fit” of the course book. The other aspect of context is the resource available. Some teaching context will be rich in resource such as course books supplementary texts, readers, computers, audio-visual equipment and consumables such as paper, pens, and so on. Other context may be extremely impoverished, with little more than an old blackboard and a few pieces of chalk. A lack of commercial materials forces teachers to fall back on their own resource and designing their own teaching materials can enable them to make best use of the resource available in their teaching context.

2.      Individual Needs

            In modern teaching methodology the teacher can identify and teaching to the individual needs of learners. Teacher designed materials can be responsive to be heterogeneity inherent in the classroom. For instance, teacher prepared materials provide the opportunity to select texts and activities at exactly the right, level for particular learners, to ensure appropriate challenge and levels of success. By taking more control over material production, the teacher can choose from the range of possibilities as starting points to develop a variety of materials that focus on the developing needs of their particular group of learners.

3.      Personalization

            This means that home-made materials saying that they add personal touch to teaching that student appreciate. Make to interests and taking account of learning styles of students is likely to increase motivation and engagement in learning.

4.      Timeliness

            Teacher designing their own materials can respond to local and international events with up-to date, relevant and high interest topics and task.

5.      Flexibility

Thr material can be revised or adapted as needed, give the flexsibility than a commercial book.

6.      Relevance

The material should directly relevant to the student and instructional, and that relation with issiues and concerns.

In conclusion, the advantages of teacher designing materials can be summed up in the idea they avoid the ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach of most commercial materials.

7.      Develop expertise

Giving the greater understanding of the characteristic of effective material.

8.      Reputation

Developed material may enhance the reputation of the instituation by demonstrating its commitment to providing materials developed specially for student.

Disadvantages :

1.      Organization

            Teacher designed material may lack overall coherence and clear progression. Without some overall organizing principle, material may be piecemeal and can result in poorly focused activities lacking clear direction. This can make frustrating and confusing for learners who may not be able to see how their English is developing. Then, when the teacher not clearly though through and well organized system, it may be difficult to locate for ongoing use, or may end up damage or with parts missing.

2.      Quality

            Teacher made material may seem ragged and unprofessional next to those produced by professional. The teacher lack of experience and understanding on the part of teacher may result produced to take advantage of authentic text.

3.      Time

            Teacher made materials and perhaps the key factor inhibiting many teachers from producing their own teaching materials. The reality shows that for many teachers, it is simply not viable, at least not all the time.

4.      Cost

Material take time to produce and staff time enough as well as resources need   to be allocated to such project.

5.      Training

To prepare some material for writing subject, should be provided by training.